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The beads from Urkesh were used as grave goods, and share many similarities in shape and production materials with many other sites in the region. One of the most unique beads, the one with the two eye shapes (A16.75.1), has parallels in southern Mesopotamia in Ur, dating back to the ED III period (Reade 2003, Fig. 79a: 130), and in Susa, dating back to the Akkadian period (Collins 2003, Fig. 201: 300).
Similarities of bead materials are shared with Terqa (Liggett 1982: 16; Stancavage in press) and with Tell Brak where some shapes are similar as well, especially the long cylindrical and barrel beads which were confirmed to be imported from the Indus valley in the case of Tell Brak. Another popular bead shape in Urkesh and Tell Brak is the disk shape which were dominant in both sites in the second millennium (McDonald 2001: 227-230), contrary to Ebla were the sphere shaped beads are higher in number (Pinnock 1993: 61, table 1).
Some shapes of beads from Urkesh, such as A14.165 were not very common in other sites, while others, such as the Gardrooned bronze and frit beads and the spacer beads were found all over Syria and Mesopotamia, made from various materials.
What is interesting is that not many shell beads were found in Urkesh, despite the fact that the city is not located far from a fresh water source where an abundance of shells might have been available, especially considering also that an imitation of a shell in gold (J1.25) was found in Urkesh, indicating that shells were highly thought of. In Tell Atchana for instance, one necklace had 73 beads of which 20 were shells, (Yener 2010: 106, fig. 2.27, A03-R1202). No evidence so far from Urkesh would suggest the use of shell beads in a necklace with other types of beads. The shells from Urkesh were most likely used as a single pendant for they are found individually without being associated with other beads. The minimum use of natural material such as bone and shells, and the heavier use of stones might echo the mountainous nature of the Hurrians who might have preferred the use of solid ridged materials over natural fragile ones.
14.1 Self-expression
The first function that comes to mind when looking at a jewelry item is self-expression, not only on the part of the person who wears it, but on the part of the person who made it as well, as for some of the items are true art pieces that required enormous skills and rich imagination to produce.
Choosing to wear or not to wear jewelry is a personal expression that reflects how a person perceive him/her self and how he/she wants to be perceived by others. Humans chose to wear decorative ornaments from the earliest stages of their history by using natural materials such as sea/ fresh water shells or animal bones, and moving on to a more elaborate form with the progression of knowledge and technique. And while many jewelry objects have an apotropaic meaning associated with them, or a certain function, it is important to not neglect the pure desire in aesthetic appeal.
14.2 Social status and wealth
Jewelry can reflect a certain social status indicating one’s social class by wearing them or not wearing them. This depends on the type of jewelry worn (earring, ring, …etc.). For example, in the Roman period, slaves used to wear an earring, which was a practice that continues all the way to the Islamic period (Ogden 2006: 16). This earring was a sign of slavery recognized by all members of society, where a simple jewelry item served as a social status identifier.
Jewelry was also worn by high-ranking member of society as an indicator of status and/or wealth because obviously, only a certain class of people can afford to wear expensive jewelry, especially gold ones with precious stones. Hence, we see that jewelry to some extent, works as a conveyor of a message regarding how the person would like to be perceived.
So far, we have no reason to believe that males wearing jewelry was a trend in Urkesh. The representations of king Tupkish on seal impressions depict him without any ornaments, unlike the representations of some other kings in Mesopotamia where one letter mentions a stone-inlaid diadem worn by Zimri- Lim at a meeting with other kings (ARM 18 8) for example (Charpin 2009: 281-282; Roßberger 2015: 234). Of course, this could only be the way in which king Tupkish is represented on seals, especially that the seal iconography puts him in a family environment where he is not expected to be adorned (Buccellati and Kelly- Buccellati 1996b). However, male figurines are not depicted wearing jewelry items, unlike some female figurines from Urkesh. Even in burials, jewelry items were attested only in the graves of females and children.
14.3 Cultural identifiers
Jewelry probably served as a mean to recognize the origin of a person. Just like in our modern days, it is easy to distinguish between Bedouin jewelry and European style jewelry, and it must have been the same in antiquity as well, where the style of the jewelry item could indicate the origin of a person, such as Phoenician pendant masks which are considered a typical Phoenician type of jewelry (Caubet et al 2007: 203). An indigenous Hurrian type of jewelry is yet to be identified.
14.4 Amulets, charms and magical use
Many of the superstitious habits and practices that people still believe today, stretch back to ancient times. Still to this day, at least in the Arab region, people believe in the power of evil eyes and try to ward it off with blue eye amulets which supposedly protects its wearer from evil and envious eyes. And until this day, people believe in the magical power of some materials, like precious and semi-precious stones where the energy on some stones are more compatible with the energy of a certain person than other stones, hence wearing them has benefits on the person’s health, well-being and overall happiness. There are many examples that depict eyes on beads in the archaeological record, which were meant to ward off evil (see Reade 2003: 130-132, Fig. 79a, 79b). And many Mesopotamian texts address the issue of warding off the effects of the evil eye. An example of this protective eye is depicted on a bead (A16.75.1) found in an infant jar burial in Tell Mozan (A16 a15 i78). This find in a burial context extends the protective power against evil eye into the afterlife as well, where this amulet is also needed.
The use of stones for beads and others types of jewelry was not arbitrary. The stones were carefully selected based on a knowledge of the protective and magical properties. The powers of these stones are evident from textual sources of the antiquity, where Inanna for example, ties a lapis bead to her neck when she was getting ready for her journey to the underworld” she tied the small lapis beads around her neck” and the metaphor behind “Do not let your bright silver Be covered with the dust of the underworld. Do not let your precious lapis Be broken into stone for the stoneworker” is indicative of not just avoiding the loss of these items hence losing their protection, but also not to lose her will power (Wolkstein and Kramer 1983: 53-54). The choice of this lapis bead was not arbitrary, as it is known to provide protection. Ancient Babylonian texts mention several types of colored stones that were believed to have protective powers against miscarriages and the birth of abnormal children (Stol 2000: 49, 166). There is also archaeological evidence that confirms that the neck beads worn by Naram-Sin, were not simply ornaments, but also provided him with protection (Winter 1996: 12).
Amber and carnelian were among the stones believed to have protective powers, and energies related to their properties (Pieniążek and Kozal 2014: 187), Carnelian is mentioned in the Hittite art of healing, and in the Egyptian religious ideology, car¬nelian was predominantly tied to the solar ideology and its power was often combined with turquoise and lapis-lazuli (Pieniążek 2017: 61). Obsidian was highly thought of as precious stone of aesthetic essence. This is attested in the Akkadian poem from the late period, Love lyrics of Nabu and Tashmetu, where in one verse, Nabu is describing the beauty of his beloved: “(O Tashmetu), whose heels are obsidian stone, (O Tashmetu), whose whole self is a tablet of lapis” (Foster 2005: 945. I’).
One of the best testimonies to the great power of jewelry is in the descent of Inanna to the underworld, where she was asked to strip off one item of clothing and jewelry at each one of the seven gates, stripping her from her alluring sexual appeal embedded in her attire and adornments. By stripping Inanna of her jewelry, she was also stripped from her powers. The beauty that these jewels add to her appeal are evidenced in this part of the text: “You, my lady, dress like one of no repute in a single garment, the beads (the sign) of a harlot, you put around your neck, it is you that hail men from the ale house!” (Jacobsen 1987: 205-232; Wolkstein and Kramer 1983).
Besides choosing the type of material according to the considerations mentioned above, the shape that these materials took had a significance as well. Many amulets and beads were shaped like different species of animals. And even today, certain animals have specific significance, although this meaning varies greatly between different societies. A turtle is considered a good luck charm for example. And because animals were a significant part of the ancient’s life, it is only natural that they would become associated with different concepts. The fish shaped pendant from Urkesh (J3.319) can hence be interpreted accordingly. And while there is no conclusive information as to what fish might have signified, one can borrow from modern concepts. Fish is considered a symbol of abundance and fertility. It is also viewed a symbol of strength and independence. The fish can only live in a water environment. If we project these concepts of independence and adherence to the environment of the fish, onto the larger frame of the Hurrian culture, the metaphor of the fish takes a deeper and larger meaning, that might have represented the adherence of the Hurrians to their environment, their independent mountainous character and their rooted unique culture.
14.5 Religious use
It is most probable that special types of jewelry, in terms of style and manufacturing materials, were worn by religious figures to distinguish them from the rest of the public and for their symbolic meaning. This symbolic meaning and form are attested in some texts (Wilkinson 1994: 82-125).
One of the pendants found in Urkesh (J3.20.1) bears a religious symbol on it. The star symbol with 8 rays depicted on the disk, which was a popular motif believed to have originated in Mesopotamia in the Akkadian period, and it is believed to be linked with to the goddess Ishtar. Giving the fact that Hurrians had their own pantheon of deities, this symbol, might have been connected to the goddess Shaushga, the Hurrian Ishtar (Maxwell-Hyslop 1971: 141-143). It is also possible to interpret the symbol of 8 rays as a sun disk, representing the sun god Shamash. However, the sun representation is usually in the form of a 4-ray star with 4 curved rays in between them, not straight lines.
Wearing these types of religious symbols, was not only related to the desire of obtaining the god’s protection through baring its symbol, but it was also meant to communicate a message to others that conveys the person’s dedication to the worship of that god.
14.6 Cultic and ritualistic use
The cultic significance of jewelry items, the materials they are made from and its relevance to cultic practices is attested in ancient Akkadian texts where for example, a text mentions the “ingredients” needed in a magical medicinal practice: “you string a gold breast plate on red wool and tie it to his chest… a string of stones you tie to his hair” (CAD: 92 s.v. rakasu)
It was also a normal practice to adorn the ritual and cultic statues with jewelry (on the statue itself) or integrate the jewelry into the statue, like in the case of statuettes (A12.108 and A12.30) from Tell Mozan. These two statuettes, which are assumed to have been a part of ritualistic ceremonies, are both wearing jewelry items. Jewelry was also used as offerings in temples, especially beads which is evident by the cache of beads found in the temple of Ninkarrak in Terqa, where 6737 beads of different materials were placed by the altar (Buccellati and Kelly-Buccellati 1980). These beads in the temple of the goddess of good health, were probably used as part of the jewels of the goddess, and her statues might have actually been adorned with them (Kelly-Buccellati 1981: 47)
Some jewelry items were fashioned as cultic symbols to grant divine protection to the person wearing it. For example, the crescent shaped pendant supposedly safeguarded pregnant women by invoking the protection of the moon god (Maxwell-Hyslop 1971: 141-143; Ornan 2007: 231).
In addition to all this, jewelry may have been important for the right of passage rituals, where the female would wear a special type of headdress. It is also believed that the jingling of the headgear metal parts, might have been effective in warding off evil. (Gansell 2007a: 460-467)
Pins were also believed to have apotropaic properties as the textual evidence from Mesopotamian suggests, and strengthened further by the archaeological evidence where many of the finds come from cultic contexts (Pieniążek and Kozal 2014: 188).
14.7 Jewelry as a means of payment
While the aesthetic and spiritual use of jewelry was probably dominant in antiquity where jewelry items were used for their powers and properties, beads, metal rings and other forms of jewelry, could have been used as means of payment (Boehmer 1972: 165-166; Pieniążek and Kozal 2014: 188). This is attested in Old Babylonian letters: “I gave you barley and silver to have bricks made” (CAD: 77 s.v. rahu). Large amounts of jewelry were also used for dowries of princesses and ordinary women (Roßberger 2015: 235).
They were used as offerings to temples or in a foundation deposit in Mesopotamia (Ellis 1968: 131ff; Kobayashi 1988). Such items were included as offerings not only for their intrinsic value, but also for their cultic/religious, apotropaic and magical properties as well. One of the most interesting contexts, in which jewelry items were found, are burial, as it was a wide spread practice accepted in almost all ancient societies.
Such a phenomenon would have significant implications for the nature, scale and intensity of inter-regional communication, the development of shared elite ideologies and to date, neither western Syria, the Southern Levant have yet produced evidence for the large-scale use of metalwork in burial contexts of early third millennium date (Philip 2007: 189). This means that north-west Syria and south-east Anatolia were the major players in the early development of the use of metalwork as a status indicator in grave contexts. An example that documents such early use of metal jewelry is the hoard of high-quality metalwork in level VIA at Arslantepe, however, their associated with mortuary behavior is not confirmed, but it may have been the stepping stone for the development of the practice in the Euphrates Valley during the beginning of the third millennium (Philip 2007: 189).
Urkesh is among the sites that yielded a number of jewelry items in several burials, which opens a window into the world of death and mortuary practices in Urkesh.